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8 Research products

  • Rural Digital Europe
  • 2013-2022
  • Open Access
  • Doctoral thesis
  • European University of Technology

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    Authors: González Teruel, Juan Domingo;

    [SPA] Esta tesis doctoral se presenta bajo la modalidad de compendio de publicaciones. El agua es una sustancia clave para el desarrollo de la vida en La Tierra. Es por ello que la búsqueda de oportunidad de vida en otros planetas y satélites se basa en la presencia de agua en los mismos. La gestión ecológica del agua es necesaria para la sostenibilidad de los ecosistemas. Uno de los ecosistemas más amplios y donde el agua juega un papel más importante es el suelo, que alberga multitud de variedades de microorganismos cuya actividad, en parte resultante en la generación de nutrientes para el desarrollo de las especies vegetales, es totalmente dependiente del contenido de agua en el suelo. En zonas áridas y semiáridas, como es el caso de la cuenca Mediterránea, la escasez de agua supone un grave problema a la hora de gestionar los pocos recursos hídricos disponibles. En este caso, donde las condiciones geográficas son idóneas para el desarrollo de la agricultura, las soluciones pasan por una optimización de las técnicas de riego y un mayor control sobre los recursos hídricos. En este sentido, las técnicas de riego deficitario controlado se han mostrado exitosas en la reducción de la dotación hídrica a los cultivos en fases no críticas. Sin embargo, para realizar una aplicación prudente y eficiente de las mismas, resulta necesario monitorizar el estado hídrico de los cultivos, con el objetivo de que éstos no alcancen situaciones de estrés irreversible en términos de producción o estado vegetativo. Los indicadores que mayor información aportan sobre el estado hídrico de la planta suelen estar relacionados con variables medibles a partir de la propia planta, pero que son difícilmente automatizables debido a las operaciones de manejo asociadas. Este es el caso del potencial hídrico de tallo a mediodía medido con cámara de presión, considerado hasta la fecha como el indicador más fiable del estado hídrico de los cultivos en general. Es por ello que, para lograr una monitorización continua de esta variable, se busquen otras variables del continuo suelo-planta-atmósfera que puedan estar relacionadas y a partir de las cuales obtener una estimación indirecta. El suelo es la matriz de donde la planta adquiere la mayor parte del agua y los nutrientes que necesita para realizar la fotosíntesis. La relación entre el estado hídrico del suelo y el estado hídrico de los cultivos está más que demostrada. Sin embargo, la precisión alcanzada en los modelos de correlación entre ambos estados requiere de una mejora considerable para hacer un uso realmente fiable de los mismos, y esta mejora no solo pasa por encontrar mejores métodos de correlación, sino también por mejorar la precisión de las medidas obtenidas del suelo. Para monitorizar el estado hídrico del suelo, existen diversas metodologías que ofrecen parámetros medibles como el contenido de agua. El método de medida más extendido para monitorizar el contenido de agua en el suelo es a través del uso de sensores dieléctricos. Sin embargo, la precisión de los mismos está sujeta a diversos factores, entre ellos las características propias del suelo donde se instalan y su coste, relativamente alto para el pequeño y mediano agricultor, condicionando una implantación extensiva de la Agricultura de Precisión y limitando a veces la aplicación de algunos desarrollos únicamente a trabajos de investigación. Esta tesis, elaborada bajo la modalidad de compendio de publicaciones, aborda a través de cuatro artículos científicos la propuesta de soluciones accesibles para la medida del estado hídrico del suelo, con especial enfoque en el contenido de agua; explora las limitaciones y retos asociados con la calibración de los sensores dieléctricos de suelo; participa en la generación de nuevos conocimientos y propuestas para un mejor entendimiento del comportamiento del agua en el suelo y de su interacción con las ondas electromagnéticas; y establece nuevos enfoques y modelos que mejoran la predicción del estado hídrico de los cultivos a partir de medidas indirectas y automatizables en suelo y atmósfera. [ENG] This doctoral dissertation has been presented in the form of thesis by publication. Water is a fundamental substance for the development of life on Earth. That is why the search for life on other planets and satellites is based on the presence of water on them. Ecological water management is necessary for the sustainability of ecosystems. One of the most extensive ecosystems where water plays a major role is soil, which hosts a large variety of micro-organisms whose activity, partly resulting in the generation of nutrients for the development of plant species, is totally dependent on the water content of the soil. In arid and semi-arid regions, as it is the case in the Mediterranean basin, water scarcity is a serious problem when it comes to managing the few water resources available. In this case, where the geographical conditions are ideal for the development of agriculture, the solutions involve optimization of irrigation techniques and greater control over water resources. In this sense, regulated deficit irrigation strategies have proven to be successful in reducing the water supply to crops in non-critical periods. However, in order to apply them prudently and efficiently, it is necessary to monitor the water status of the crops, so that they do not reach irreversible stress situations in terms of yield or vegetative state. The indicators that provide the highest amount of information on the water status of the plant are usually related to variables that can be measured from the plant itself, but which are difficult to automate due to the labor and time-consuming associated operations. This is the case of the midday stem water potential measured with a pressure chamber, considered to date to be the most reliable indicator of the crop's water status in general. In order to achieve a continuous monitoring of this variable, it is necessary to look for other variables of the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum that may be related and from which to obtain an indirect estimate. Soil is the matrix from which the plant acquires most of the water and nutrients it needs for photosynthesis. The relationship between soil water status and crop water status is well established. However, the accuracy achieved in the correlation models between the two requires considerable improvement to make a truly reliable use of them, and this improvement is not only to find better correlation methods, but also to improve the accuracy of the measurements obtained from the soil. To monitor soil water status, there are several methodologies that provide measurable parameters such as water content. The most widespread measurement method for monitoring soil water content is through the use of dielectric sensors. However, the accuracy of these sensors is subject to various factors, including the characteristics of the soil where they are installed, and their relatively high cost for small and medium-sized farmers, conditioning the extensive implementation of precision agriculture and sometimes limiting the application of some developments only to research work. This thesis, elaborated under the modality of a compendium of publications, addresses through four scientific articles the proposal of affordable solutions for the measurement of soil water status, with special focus on water content; it explores the limitations and challenges associated with the calibration of soil dielectric sensors; participates in the generation of new insights and proposals for a better understanding of the behavior of water in soil and its interaction with electromagnetic waves; and establishes new approaches and models that improve the prediction of crop water status from indirect and automatable measurements in soil and atmosphere. Esta tesis doctoral se presenta bajo la modalidad de compendio de publicaciones. Está formada por un total de cuatro artículos: Article I. González-Teruel, J.D., Torres-Sánchez, R., Blaya-Ros, P.J., Toledo-Moreo, A.B., Jiménez-Buendía, M., Soto-Valles, F., 2019. Design and Calibration of a Low-Cost SDI-12 Soil Moisture Sensor. Sensors, 19, 491. DOI: 10.3390/s19030491 - Article II. González-Teruel, J.D., Jones, S.B., Soto-Valles, F., Torres-Sánchez, R., Lebron, I., Friedman, S.P., Robinson, D.A., 2020. Dielectric Spectroscopy and Application of Mixing Models Describing Dielectric Dispersion in Clay Minerals and Clayey Soils. Sensors, 20, 6678. DOI: 10.3390/s20226678 Article III. González-Teruel, J.D., Jones, S.B., Robinson, D.A., Giménez-Gallego, J., Zornoza, R., Torres-Sánchez, R., 2022. Measurement of the broadband complex permittivity of soils in the frequency domain with a low-cost Vector Network Analyzer and an Open-Ended coaxial probe. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 195, 106847. DOI: 10.1016/J.COMPAG.2022.106847 Article IV. González-Teruel, J.D., Ruiz-Abellon, M.C., Blanco, V., Blaya-Ros, P.J., Domingo, R., Torres-Sánchez, R., 2022. Prediction of Water Stress Episodes in Fruit Trees Based on Soil and Weather Time Series Data. Agronomy, 12, 1422. DOI: 10.3390/agronomy12061422 Escuela Internacional de Doctorado de la Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena Programa de Doctorado en Tecnologías Industriales

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    Authors: Andersone, I;

    Promocijas darbā izstrādātā metode piedāvā alternatīvu risinājumu, kā apvienot metriskas robotu sastādītas kartes un kā rīkoties kļūdainas karšu apvienošanas gadījumā. Metode risina karšu apvienošanas problēmu gan lokālā (divu metrisku karšu apvienošana bez informācijas par to savstarpējo novietojumu), gan globālā (rezultāta pārbaude un karšu apvienošanas atgriezeniskums) līmenī.

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    Authors: Alfonso Ruiz, Francisco Javier;

    [SPA] En la empresa actual, y en un entorno globalizado como en el que nos encontramos, resulta de vital importancia tener unos procesos eficientes y eficaces, capaces de suministrar el producto o servicio en el plazo adecuado, en la cantidad adecuada, y con el mínimo coste posible. Desde hace varias décadas, la metodología Lean aporta a las empresas herramientas enfocadas a la mejora gradual y continua de su cadena de valor, haciéndolas más competitivas. Pese a esto, no resulta difícil encontrar implantaciones Lean fracasadas, aún con el esfuerzo e inversión iniciales, lo cual conlleva una gran pérdida de tiempo y dinero. Por otro lado, la Industria 4.0 se está erigiendo como la nueva revolución industrial, la de los sistemas ciber-físicos, encaminada a la digitalización e interconectividad de los sistemas productivos a través de la aplicación industrial de las tecnologías de la información. Será crítico en las empresas del futuro adaptar de forma adecuada sus procesos/servicios a esta nueva era digital. El propósito de esta tesis es, por un lado, determinar cuáles son las barreras de implantación de la filosofía Lean más habituales, y por otro, analizar las herramientas de la Industria 4.0 más utilizadas para, posteriormente, centrarse en la interacción entre ambos mundos, el de mejora continua y el digital. Se pretende hacer especial hincapié en la digitalización de los sistemas orientados hacia un Lean digital y adaptados a la realidad futura de los entornos industriales, de manera que no sólo se eviten las fricciones entre ambos enfoques, sino que se aproveche la Industria 4.0 para atenuar las históricas barreras de implementación del Lean Manufacturing, potenciando y mejorando estos sistemas. Pese a ser un tema de gran interés para las empresas, actualmente no se disponen de estudios científicos que demuestren que la digitalización de las empresas a través de la Industria 4.0 puede atenuar las barreras de implantación de sistemas Lean y mejorar, por tanto, el impacto de estos sistemas de mejora continua en los resultados de las empresas. A través de un estudio en profundidad realizado dentro de la empresa multinacional Saint- Gobain, mediante el análisis cuantitativo en 93 fábricas distribuidas en más de 10 países, se ha conseguido demostrar estadísticamente la relación positiva que las herramientas digitales tienen en la implantación Lean y, por ende, en los resultados de la empresa. Los resultados obtenidos son de gran ayuda para aquellas empresas inmersas en proyectos Lean de mejora continua, así como en otras cuyos sistemas hayan perdido relevancia con el paso del tiempo. Además, se suple en parte la falta de conocimiento en esta área, ya que como se ha señalado anteriormente apenas hay artículos científicos que demuestren esta relación positiva. Por último, pero no por eso menos importante, el haber hecho el estudio desde dentro de uno de los grupos industriales mayores a nivel mundial, otorga a esta investigación un grado de aplicabilidad elevado por su estrecha cercanía al mundo de las empresas. [ENG] In today's company, and in a globalized environment such as the one we find ourselves in, it is vitally important to have efficient and effective processes, capable of supplying the product or service in the right time, in the right quantity, and at the lowest possible cost. For several decades, the Lean methodology has provided companies with tools focused on the gradual and progressive improvement of their value chain, making them more competitive. Despite this, it is not difficult to find failed Lean implementations, even with the initial effort and investment, which leads to a great loss of time and money. On the other hand, Industry 4.0 is emerging as the new industrial revolution, the one of the cyber-physical systems, aimed at the digitalization and interconnectivity of production systems through the industrial application of information technologies. It will be critical in the companies of the future adequately adapt their processes/services to this new digital era. The purpose of this thesis is, on one hand, to determine which are the most common barriers for the implementation of the Lean philosophy, and on the other hand, to analyze the tools of Industry 4.0 most used. Finally, it will be focused on the interaction between both worlds, digital and continuous improvement, with special emphasis on the digitalization of these systems towards a digital Lean and adapted to the future reality of industrial environments, so that not only friction between both approaches is avoided, but also Industry 4.0 is used to mitigate the historical barriers to the implementation of Lean Manufacturing, enhancing and improving these systems. Despite being a topic of great interest for companies, currently there are no scientific studies showing that the digitalization of companies through Industry 4.0 can mitigate the barriers to Lean implementation, and therefore improve the impact of these systems of continuous improvement in the results of companies. Through an in-depth study carried out within the multinational company Saint-Gobain, by means of the quantitative analysis in 93 factories distributed in more than 10 countries, it has been possible to statistically demonstrate the positive relationship that digital tools have in the implementation of Lean, and therefore in the results of the company. The results obtained are of great help for those companies immersed in Lean projects of continuous improvement, as well as in others whose systems have lost relevance over time. In addition, the lack of knowledge in this area is partly solved, since as we said there are hardly any scientific articles that demonstrate this positive relationship. Last, but not least, having made the study from within one of the largest industrial groups worldwide, gives this research a high degree of applicability due to its close proximity to the business world. Escuela Internacional de Doctorado de la Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena Programa de Doctorado en Ciencias Económicas, Empresariales y Jurídicas

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    Authors: Porteous, Cian;

    Botnets pose a significant and growing risk to modern networks. Detection of botnets remains an important area of open research in order to prevent the proliferation of botnets and to mitigate the damage that can be caused by botnets that have already been established. Botnet detection can be broadly categorised into two main categories: signature-based detection and anomaly-based detection. This paper sets out to measure the accuracy, false-positive rate, and false-negative rate of four algorithms that are available in Weka for anomaly-based detection of a dataset of HTTP and IRC botnet data. The algorithms that were selected to detect botnets in the Weka environment are J48, naïve Bayes, random forest, and UltraBoost. The dataset was generated using a realistic network environment by The University of New South Wales, Canberra. The findings showed that botnet behaviours from the selected dataset could be detected by Weka with a high degree of accuracy and low false-positive rate. With all features included, the random forest algorithm was found to achieve the highest accuracy with 96.70%, and the algorithm that attained the lowest false-positive rates was also random forest with 0.008. With a reduced feature set of IP addresses and ports, the random forest algorithm attained the highest accuracy and precision and lowest false-positive rate. With only information regarding packets per second being sent and received, J48 was this time the most accurate with its predictions and attained the highest precision.

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    Doctoral thesis . 2022
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      Doctoral thesis . 2022
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    Authors: Martínez Pérez, José Ángel;

    [SPA] La Cuenca del Río Segura, localizada en el Sureste de España, es un área semiárida donde las necesidades hídricas del sector agrícola superan el 80 % del uso total del agua disponible. En esta cuenca considerada la “huerta de Europa”, las sequías son recurrentes por ello la gestión sostenible del uso del agua representa un reto a alcanzar. En este sentido, el aumento de fiabilidad en la estimación de la evapotranspiración real (ETreal) se vería traducido en un mayor conocimiento de la necesidad hídrica real del cultivo, y por consiguiente en un uso más racional del agua, siendo por tanto el principal objetivo de la presente Tesis. La información necesaria para alcanzar este objetivo, ha sido obtenida en su mayor parte desde satélite; valiosa fuente de información que permite derivar componentes del balance hídrico. Desde observaciones multiescala se pueden identificar las zonas regadas con problemas de estrés hídrico, sus necesidades de riego, y realizar por tanto recomendaciones acertadas de volúmenes de riego. En la presente Tesis, se han propuesto y desarrollado metodologías en base a imágenes satélites que han sido validadas con datos al suelo desde torres de medida de flujo (mediante la técnica Eddy Covariance), permitiendo una estimación espacio-temporal de la ETreal a distintas escalas temporales y espaciales. Primeramente se abordó un análisis a escala de parcela o distrito de riego, centrándose el área de estudio en el Campo de Cartagena. El método aplicado consistió en una aproximación gráfica basado en la ecuación de Priestley-Taylor (PT), donde condiciones no limitantes del agua y de suelo seco fueron definidas por la temperatura superficial (LST) y el índice de vegetación (VI) Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), ambos obtenidos mediante teledetección. Utilizando mediciones de ETreal e imágenes Landsat 5-TM en un área regada, se realizó un análisis de sensibilidad de las distribuciones espaciales de ETreal para el período 2009-11 con respecto a: (i) la forma (trapezoidal o rectangular) del espacio LST versus VI; y (ii) el valor del coeficiente PT (α). Los resultados de la validación fueron satisfactorios. Ambas formas proporcionaron resultados similares en la estimación de ETreal, con un error cuadrático medio (RMSE) ~30 W/m2 y una diferencia relativa ~10 % con respecto a las observaciones basadas en las torres de medida. El mejor ajuste con datos medidos fue para α cercano a 1, un valor algo diferente del valor comúnmente utilizado de 1.27, lo que indica que podría producirse un error sustancial al usar este último valor. En segundo lugar, se afronta un análisis a escala de cuenca hidrográfica más apropiado en estudios y modelos hidrológicos orientados a planificación de recursos hídricos, y usos agrícolas, pues éstos exigen el conocimiento de largas series temporales de ETreal empleando escenarios dinámicos relacionados con el uso del suelo o el cambio climático. Esta información a escala mensual y de cuenca hidrográfica permite la mejora de series temporales hidrológicas, uno de los objetivos buscados por la política del agua de la Unión Europea. En este sentido, a nivel europeo se pretende incentivar la contabilidad del agua a escala de cuenca, como herramienta para determinar ahorros potenciales de agua y homogeneizar resultados para ser comparados entre territorios y periodos. Debido a ello, con el propósito de integrar ETreal en un sistema de contabilidad hídrica, se empleó un método basado en un ajuste de regresión no lineal, usando para ello el IV Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) provisto por el sensor MODIS a bordo de la plataforma TERRA, datos de temperatura del aire para la estimación de la ETo, y observaciones de ETreal, proporcionando estimaciones mensuales y a escala de cuenca. Los resultados fueron validados con datos al suelo desde torres de medida de flujos, mostrando un error inferior a un 15 % y un RMSE inferior a 0.5 mm/d (mensual). Con esta información, se completaron balances hídricos en el marco de la implantación del sistema SEEA-Water de Naciones Unidas para toda la Demarcación del Río Segura, diseñándose una herramienta que combina la información hidrometeorológica necesaria desde distintas fuentes. De este modo, constituye una metodología innovadora para la incorporación de datos hidrometeorológicos agregando diferentes redes de medición. A modo de aplicación, en esta Tesis se detallan únicamente los resultados referentes a en la cuenca alta del Río Segura, donde se localizan y generan las reservas más importantes de la cuenca. y validación para diferentes condiciones de cobertura vegetal. Se destaca la dificultad en la aplicación de la metodología SEEA-Water de las cuentas del agua a escala de demarcación hidrográfica, dada la falta de datos y la integración de diferentes fuentes de información y escalas espacio-temporales de trabajo. Sin embargo, quedan por resolver incertidumbres relacionadas con otras variables así como la integración de diferentes fuentes de información y escalas espacio-temporales de trabajo. En este sentido se debe hacer un esfuerzo, que permita llegar a un equilibrio entre lo establecido en la Directiva Marco de Aguas y la disponibilidad real de la información requerida. [ENG] The Segura River Basin, located in the Southeast of Spain, is a semi-arid area where water need of agricultural sector exceed 80 % of the total use of available water. In this basin, which is considered the "orchard of Europe", droughts are frequent, so the sustainable management of water use represents a challenge to be achieved. In this sense, the increase of reliability in the estimation of the actual evapotranspiration (ETact), would be reflected in a better knowledge of the crop water requirements, and consequently in a more rational use of agricultural water resources, which is one of the main objectives of this Thesis. The necessary information to achieve this objective have been obtained mostly from satellite, which is known to be a valuable source of information for retrieving the components of land energy and water balance. From multiscale observations, it can be identified irrigated areas with water stress problems, their irrigation needs, and therefore, it could provide accurate recommendations for irrigation scheduling. In this Thesis, methodologies have been proposed and developed based on satellite images, which have been validated from ground truth using flux towers and the Eddy-Covariance technique, allowing estimation of ETact at different temporal and spatial scales. Firstly, an analysis was carried out at the scale of the irrigation plot or district. The applied method consisted of a graphical approximation based on the Priestley-Taylor (PT) equation, where non-limiting conditions of water and dry soil were defined by the surface temperature (LST) and a vegetation index (VI) Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), both obtained by remote sensing. Using ET measurements from flux towers, and Landsat 5-TM images in a irrigated area, a sensitivity analysis of ETact spatial distributions was performed for the period 2009-11 with respect to: (i) the form (trapezoidal or rectangular) of the LST-VI space; and (ii) the value of the PT coefficient (α). The results from ground truth validation were satisfactory, both shapes providing similar performances in estimating ETact, with root mean square error (RMSE) ~30 W/m2 and relative difference ~10 % with respect to tower-based measurements. Importantly, the best fit with ground data was found for α close to 1, a somewhat different value from the commonly used value of 1.27, indicating that substantial error might arise when using the latter value. Secondly, an analysis at the hydrographic basin scale is, more appropriate in hydrological and agricultural studies and models, but requires the knowledge of long time series of ETact using dynamic scenarios related to land use or climate change. This information at a monthly scale and in a watershed allows for the improvement of hydrological time series, the purpose of the European Union's water policy. In this sense, at European level the water accounting is pretended to encourage, as a tool to determine potential water savings and homogenize results to be compared between territories and periods. Therefore, with the purpose of integrating ETact in a water accounting system, a method based on a nonlinear regression adjustment was used, which uses the IV Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) provided by the MODIS sensor on board the platform TERRA, air temperature data for the estimation of ETo, and observations of ETact, provided monthly and basin scale estimates. The results were validated with soil data from flow measurement towers, showing an error of less than 15 % and an RMSE of less than 0.5 mm/d (monthly). With this information, water balances were filled out within the framework of the implementation of the United Nations SEE-Water system, for the entire Segura River Demarcation, designing a tool that combines different hydrometeorological information necessary for the completion of water balances. In this way, it constitutes an innovative methodology for the incorporation of hydrometeorological data by the integration of different measurement networks. However, this thesis only details the results respect to the upper basin of the Segura River, where the most important stocks of the basin are located and generated. Finally, it is emphasized that obtaining reliable estimates of ETact for different vegetal coverage conditions by means of large-scale satellite data is a difficult objective to achieve given the multitude of variables involved in this process. To which must be added the scarcity of ground true data for its contrast under different environmental conditions. The difficulty in the implementation of SEEA-Water methodology of water accounting at basin scale, is justified by the unavailability of all data at the spatio-temporal scale Abstract required. However although there are still unresolved uncertainties related to other variables and the integration of different sources of information and spatio-temporal scales of work. Therefore, an effort must be made in this sense, which allows achieving a balance between what is established in the Water Framework Directive and the actual availability of the required information. Escuela Internacional de Doctorado de la Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena Programa Doctorado en Técnicas Avanzadas en Investigación y Desarrollo Agrario y Alimentario

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    Authors: Papoutsa, Christiana;

    Maintaining water quality in inland and coastal water bodies in good condition is of the highest priority tasks in the implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive, and a key component in water resources management. This is of great importance for Cyprus, too, since a large number of reservoir water bodies have been developed to address drought, thus calling for systematic monitoring of water quality. Conventional methods for assessing water quality rely on sampling campaigns which are costly and time consuming. Aiming to fill the gap of the conventional field methods this PhD thesis is focused on providing novel methods for monitoring large surface Case-2 (inland and coastal) water bodies in the Mediterranean region using satellite images which can provide data on a systematic basis and offer synoptic coverage. To reach this goal, ground truth data measurements (spectroradiometric, turbidity and Secchi Disk Depth) were conducted simultaneously to satellite overpasses. Afterwards, statistical analysis and modelling techniques were employed to analyse and correlate the available data. The first goal is to identify a suitable spectral region from which turbidity can be retrieved based on the field spectroradiometric measurements obtained during an extensive 3-years field campaign over Asprokremmos Reservoir, the main study area. Secondly, the aim is to provide the suitable bands for monitoring turbidity using different satellite sensors such as Landsat, Envisat MERIS and Chris-Proba. To test the derived algorithm eight available Landsat-5 TM and Landsat-7 ETM+ satellite images which were acquired at the same time as the field campaigns were processed; and the correlation between the satellite-derived data to the ground-based measurements was found statistically significant. The third objective is to develop an algorithm which can be used for estimating the Trophic State Index over large surface Case-2 water bodies in the Mediterranean region on a systematic basis using remotely sensed data. All the data acquired during the field campaigns over different water bodies inland and coastal were xv processed in order to examine and retrieve the ‘best-fit’ algorithm. This algorithm is of great importance since it can be applied for a wide range of water bodies with different trophic state values based on the band ratio values of the available Landsat satellite data. As a fourth objective the diffuse attenuation coefficient for Asprokremmos Reservoir was calculated and used in order to study its optical properties. Diffuse attenuation coefficient over the Reservoir was calculated for different bandwidths. The objective was to identify the optimal bandwidth which shows the best correlation with the TSI and SDD readings. For the calculation of the Diffuse Attenuation Coefficient values, field spectroradiometric data collected at different water depths below the water surface during the field campaigns in Asprokremmos were used. Finally, this thesis provides a reference spectral library covering a wide range of Case-2 water bodies including oligotrophic and eutrophic inland water bodies, a shallow salt-lake and several coastal areas. This can assist the characterization of any water body based on its spectral characteristics being retrieved from the available satellite data. All the above applications can become a very valuable tool for water quality monitoring of large reservoirs in Cyprus. This tool can be used on a systematic basis by the stakeholders, such as the Cyprus Water Development Department in the near future. All the field data can be further used to develop new algorithms based on the spectral resolution of any other satellite providing the opportunity to select satellites with different temporal and spatial resolution depending on the purpose of the application and the availability of satellite images. Athanasios Loukas, Phaedon C. Kyriakidis, Completed

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    Authors: Zabala García, José Ángel;

    [SPA] Esta tesis doctoral se presenta bajo la modalidad de compendio de publicaciones. La contribución de la agricultura al bienestar humano va más allá de la mera producción de alimentos y materias primas. También abarca la provisión de bienes y servicios de no mercado que pueden tener impacto, positivo o negativo, en el bienestar humano. Así, la agricultura es la principal actividad desarrollada al amparo de los agroecosistemas, donde la presión antrópica de las prácticas agrícolas afecta a su funcionamiento y a los niveles de provisión de servicios y contraservicios ecosistémicos. La valoración económica de estos servicios y contraservicios, y en consecuencia de las prácticas agrícolas que los fomentan, permite orientar las decisiones de política agrícola de acuerdo a la contribución de los agroecosistemas al bienestar humano. En este contexto, la presente tesis doctoral tiene como objetivo central la valoración económica de la demanda social de servicios y contraservicios de los agroecosistemas, así como de las prácticas agrícolas que los promueven. Para ello, y utilizando experimentos de elección como metodología principal, se formula un enfoque integral para la valoración de agroecosistemas en una región semiárida del Mediterráneo, la Región de Murcia (sudeste de España). La validación de este enfoque es llevada a cabo por parte de los agentes implicados en su gestión y permite seleccionar los servicios y contraservicios más importantes, cuya demanda social y valor de no mercado son posteriormente estimados. Más allá de las cifras concretas, los resultados ofrecen una visión amplia sobre el enfoque necesario en las políticas agrícolas para que logren aumentar el bienestar de la sociedad. Así, las acciones de política agrícola deberían centrarse en aumentar la provisión de alimentos, promover la biodiversidad de los agroecosistemas, reducir la temperatura local, generar oportunidades para el ocio y recreo en los paisajes agrícolas, mientras se busca regular el suministro de agua para riego y mitigar la contaminación por nutrientes agrícolas. En relación a este último aspecto, en esta tesis también se aborda la evaluación de la demanda social de medidas agrícolas con el fin de reducir la contaminación por nitratos de la agricultura. Todas las medidas propuestas, pese a la heterogeneidad detectada en su demanda, contaron con apoyo social, lo que ha de brindar orientación a los gestores públicos para el establecimiento de estrategias para la mitigación de la contaminación agrícola por nitratos que sean socialmente respaldadas. Así se espera que esta tesis proporcione una mejor comprensión de los vínculos entre agricultura y bienestar humano, orientando la formulación de políticas mejor informadas y eficaces en aras de su contribución al bienestar social. [ENG] This doctoral dissertation has been presented in the form of thesis by publication. The contribution of agriculture to human wellbeing goes beyond food production. It also encompasses the provision of non-commodity goods and services that may impact human wellbeing both positively and negatively. Agriculture is the main activity developed within agroecosystems, where human pressures, mainly through agricultural practices, affect their innate functioning. This leads to the provision of agroecosystem services and disservices. Economic valuation of agroecosystem services and disservices, and agricultural practices in accordance, allow us to guide policy decisions in line with the contribution of agroecosystems to human wellbeing. In such a context, this thesis aims to economically evaluate the integrated social demand of agroecosystem services and disservices, and the agricultural practices that promotes them, by adapting a comprehensive approach for agroecosystem valuation in a semiarid Mediterranean region – the Region of Murcia (SE Spain). Discrete choice experiment was the central methodology used. The non-market value of agroecosystem services and disservices, and consequently, of agricultural practices impacting on them, was disentangled aiming to reflect the contribution of agroecosystems to human wellbeing in monetary terms. The validation of a comprehensive approach for agroecosystem valuation by stakeholders settled the agroecosystem services and disservices whose social demand and non-market value was then estimated. Regardless of the specific economic values, the non-market results provide deep insight into the expected focus of agricultural policies for increasing their impact on human wellbeing. Agricultural measures should therefore be centred around increasing food provision, promoting agroecosystem biodiversity, reducing the local temperature, generating opportunities for recreation in agricultural landscapes, whilst seeking to regulate water supply for irrigation and mitigate agricultural nutrient pollution. In accordance with the latter, the social demand for agricultural measures aiming to reduce nitrate pollution from agriculture was addressed. Despite the great preference heterogeneity, social support was revealed to the measures, providing guidance for policy makers in the establishment of socially supported strategies for agricultural nitrate pollution mitigation. To conclude, this thesis expects to provide better insight into the links between agriculture and human wellbeing, in the hopes that better- informed policy actions will, therefore, be developed that aim to boost human wellbeing. Esta tesis doctoral se presenta bajo la modalidad de compendio de publicaciones. Está formada por un total de tres artículos: Article 1.-: Zabala, J.A., Martínez-Paz, J.M., Alcon, F., 2021. A comprehensive approach for agroecosystem services and disservices valuation. Science of The Total Environment 768, 144859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.144859. Q1. IF 7.963. Article 2.-: Zabala, J.A, Martínez-Paz, J.M., Alcon, F., 2021. Integrated valuation of semiarid Mediterranean agroecosystem services and disservices. Ecological Economics 184, 107008. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2021.107008. Q1. IF 5.389 Article 3.-: Alcon, F., Zabala, J.A., Martínez-Paz, J.M., 2022. Assessment of social demand heterogeneity to inform agricultural diffuse pollution mitigation policies. Ecological Economics 191, 107216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2021.107216. Q1. IF 5.389. Escuela Internacional de Doctorado de la Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena Programa Doctorado en Ciencias Económicas, Empresariales y Jurídicas

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    Authors: Moreno Cornejo, Jennifer;

    [SPA] La producción agrícola en la Región de Murcia ocupa un lugar muy importante en la economía regional y especialmente en la zona del Campo de Cartagena. Esta intensísima agricultura conlleva la generación de un problema de contaminación difusa debido a un excesivo uso de fertilizantes químicos. Además, esta actividad también genera una gran cantidad de residuos post-cosecha resultantes de los ciclos productivos, especialmente de cultivos bajo invernadero. En esta tesis se propone la valorización de los restos de cosecha como enmienda orgánica del suelo para intentar mejorar sus propiedades y reducir el uso de fertilizantes químicos. Los residuos de cosecha poseen un gran potencial como enmienda en suelos dedicados a producción agrícola ya que representan una fuente de materia orgánica y de nutrientes, lo que justifica el estudio de sus efectos en el suelo una vez incorporados. Por ello se ha evaluado, bajo condiciones controladas, la influencia a medio plazo de diferentes dosis de residuos de pimiento (muy comunes en el Campo de Cartagena) sobre la dinámica del carbono y del nitrógeno. Los resultados resaltan la importancia de la dosis cuando se aplican restos vegetales, ya que la adición de los mismos a dosis bajas (2 g kg-1) causó una inmovilización de N mientras que a dosis más altas (3 and 5 g kg-1) se produjo una mineralización de N neta de 13.7 y 56.7 mg kg-1. También se ha estudiado el efecto de la aplicación de residuos frescos de pimiento sobre un cultivo de brócoli, en comparación con el uso exclusivo de fertilizantes químicos. Los objetivos fueron evaluar el efecto de dichos residuos sobre las propiedades físico-químicas y bioquímicas del suelo relacionadas con el ciclo del carbono y fertilidad del suelo, así como sobre la calidad, nutrientes y producción en un cultivo de brócoli. Los resultados mostraron que la combinación de altas tasas de aplicación de restos vegetales con una mínima fertilización química mejora las propiedades edáficas incrementando entre otros la biomasa microbiana y algunas actividades enzimáticas si se compara con el control. Además, existen efectos positivos sobre la calidad del brócoli sin que exista un impacto negativo sobre su producción. Finalmente se ha estudiado el turnover de carbono mediado por las poblaciones microbianas utilizando técnicas de marcaje isotópico (13C) para conocer la cantidad de carbono que se incorpora a las diferentes fracciones del suelo, considerando la influencia de tres restos vegetales y dos formas de manejo, orgánica y convencional. Los resultados indicaron que el 13C, incorporado como glucosa fue asimilado en mayor medida por la biomasa microbiana en los suelos enmendados con restos vegetales. Sin embargo, la adición de restos también causó una mayor mineralización del 13C orgánico comparado con los controles, por lo que su incorporación en el suelo, tanto en la fracción lábil como recalcitrante, fue menor en dichos suelos enmendados con restos vegetales. [ENG] The agricultural production in the Murcia Region occupies a very important place in the regional economy and especially in the agricultural land of Campo de Cartagena. The intensive agricultural production has resulted in a diffuse pollution problem due to an excessive use of chemical fertilizers and a large amount generation of post-harvest crop residues resulting after the growing season, especially from greenhouse crops. In this thesis the recycling of crop residues applied as soil organic amendment is proposed to improve soil quality and reduce the use of chemical fertilizer. The crop residues have a great potential as organic amendment in agricultural lands representing a source of both organic matter and nutrients; however it is necessary to study their effect when they are applied in soil. We have evaluated, under laboratory conditions, the medium-term influence of pepper residues (very common in Campo de Cartagena) applied at different rates on carbon and nitrogen dynamics in an agricultural soil. The results highlight the importance of dose when applying crop residues. The addition of pepper residues at low doses (2 g kg-1) produce a net N immobilization in soil, while higher doses (3 and 5 g kg-1) show a net N mineralization of 13.7 and 56.7 mg kg-1. Was also studied the effect of pepper crop residues application on broccoli production compared with the exclusive use of chemical fertilizers. We focused on the effect of crop residues on soil physico-chemical and biochemical properties related to the carbon cycle, soil fertility and broccoli nutrient, yield and quality. The results showed that large application rates of crop residues with a minimum chemical fertilization improved chemical and biochemical soil properties increasing, among others, microbial biomass and some enzymatic activities compared with control. Likewise, positive effects on broccoli quality were found with no negative impact on broccoli yield. Finally, the carbon turnover mediated by soil microbial populations was assessed using isotopic labeling techniques to know the amount of labeled C (13C) incorporated into different organic pools considering the influence of three plant materials and under two management systems. Results indicated that the 13C-glucose was much more assimilated into microbial biomass C in plants-amended samples. However, plants addition also caused a positive priming effect and enhanced mineralization of organic 13C, thus C from glucose was incorporated in a lower proportion into soil recalcitrant and labile carbon in plants-amended soils. Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena

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    Authors: González Teruel, Juan Domingo;

    [SPA] Esta tesis doctoral se presenta bajo la modalidad de compendio de publicaciones. El agua es una sustancia clave para el desarrollo de la vida en La Tierra. Es por ello que la búsqueda de oportunidad de vida en otros planetas y satélites se basa en la presencia de agua en los mismos. La gestión ecológica del agua es necesaria para la sostenibilidad de los ecosistemas. Uno de los ecosistemas más amplios y donde el agua juega un papel más importante es el suelo, que alberga multitud de variedades de microorganismos cuya actividad, en parte resultante en la generación de nutrientes para el desarrollo de las especies vegetales, es totalmente dependiente del contenido de agua en el suelo. En zonas áridas y semiáridas, como es el caso de la cuenca Mediterránea, la escasez de agua supone un grave problema a la hora de gestionar los pocos recursos hídricos disponibles. En este caso, donde las condiciones geográficas son idóneas para el desarrollo de la agricultura, las soluciones pasan por una optimización de las técnicas de riego y un mayor control sobre los recursos hídricos. En este sentido, las técnicas de riego deficitario controlado se han mostrado exitosas en la reducción de la dotación hídrica a los cultivos en fases no críticas. Sin embargo, para realizar una aplicación prudente y eficiente de las mismas, resulta necesario monitorizar el estado hídrico de los cultivos, con el objetivo de que éstos no alcancen situaciones de estrés irreversible en términos de producción o estado vegetativo. Los indicadores que mayor información aportan sobre el estado hídrico de la planta suelen estar relacionados con variables medibles a partir de la propia planta, pero que son difícilmente automatizables debido a las operaciones de manejo asociadas. Este es el caso del potencial hídrico de tallo a mediodía medido con cámara de presión, considerado hasta la fecha como el indicador más fiable del estado hídrico de los cultivos en general. Es por ello que, para lograr una monitorización continua de esta variable, se busquen otras variables del continuo suelo-planta-atmósfera que puedan estar relacionadas y a partir de las cuales obtener una estimación indirecta. El suelo es la matriz de donde la planta adquiere la mayor parte del agua y los nutrientes que necesita para realizar la fotosíntesis. La relación entre el estado hídrico del suelo y el estado hídrico de los cultivos está más que demostrada. Sin embargo, la precisión alcanzada en los modelos de correlación entre ambos estados requiere de una mejora considerable para hacer un uso realmente fiable de los mismos, y esta mejora no solo pasa por encontrar mejores métodos de correlación, sino también por mejorar la precisión de las medidas obtenidas del suelo. Para monitorizar el estado hídrico del suelo, existen diversas metodologías que ofrecen parámetros medibles como el contenido de agua. El método de medida más extendido para monitorizar el contenido de agua en el suelo es a través del uso de sensores dieléctricos. Sin embargo, la precisión de los mismos está sujeta a diversos factores, entre ellos las características propias del suelo donde se instalan y su coste, relativamente alto para el pequeño y mediano agricultor, condicionando una implantación extensiva de la Agricultura de Precisión y limitando a veces la aplicación de algunos desarrollos únicamente a trabajos de investigación. Esta tesis, elaborada bajo la modalidad de compendio de publicaciones, aborda a través de cuatro artículos científicos la propuesta de soluciones accesibles para la medida del estado hídrico del suelo, con especial enfoque en el contenido de agua; explora las limitaciones y retos asociados con la calibración de los sensores dieléctricos de suelo; participa en la generación de nuevos conocimientos y propuestas para un mejor entendimiento del comportamiento del agua en el suelo y de su interacción con las ondas electromagnéticas; y establece nuevos enfoques y modelos que mejoran la predicción del estado hídrico de los cultivos a partir de medidas indirectas y automatizables en suelo y atmósfera. [ENG] This doctoral dissertation has been presented in the form of thesis by publication. Water is a fundamental substance for the development of life on Earth. That is why the search for life on other planets and satellites is based on the presence of water on them. Ecological water management is necessary for the sustainability of ecosystems. One of the most extensive ecosystems where water plays a major role is soil, which hosts a large variety of micro-organisms whose activity, partly resulting in the generation of nutrients for the development of plant species, is totally dependent on the water content of the soil. In arid and semi-arid regions, as it is the case in the Mediterranean basin, water scarcity is a serious problem when it comes to managing the few water resources available. In this case, where the geographical conditions are ideal for the development of agriculture, the solutions involve optimization of irrigation techniques and greater control over water resources. In this sense, regulated deficit irrigation strategies have proven to be successful in reducing the water supply to crops in non-critical periods. However, in order to apply them prudently and efficiently, it is necessary to monitor the water status of the crops, so that they do not reach irreversible stress situations in terms of yield or vegetative state. The indicators that provide the highest amount of information on the water status of the plant are usually related to variables that can be measured from the plant itself, but which are difficult to automate due to the labor and time-consuming associated operations. This is the case of the midday stem water potential measured with a pressure chamber, considered to date to be the most reliable indicator of the crop's water status in general. In order to achieve a continuous monitoring of this variable, it is necessary to look for other variables of the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum that may be related and from which to obtain an indirect estimate. Soil is the matrix from which the plant acquires most of the water and nutrients it needs for photosynthesis. The relationship between soil water status and crop water status is well established. However, the accuracy achieved in the correlation models between the two requires considerable improvement to make a truly reliable use of them, and this improvement is not only to find better correlation methods, but also to improve the accuracy of the measurements obtained from the soil. To monitor soil water status, there are several methodologies that provide measurable parameters such as water content. The most widespread measurement method for monitoring soil water content is through the use of dielectric sensors. However, the accuracy of these sensors is subject to various factors, including the characteristics of the soil where they are installed, and their relatively high cost for small and medium-sized farmers, conditioning the extensive implementation of precision agriculture and sometimes limiting the application of some developments only to research work. This thesis, elaborated under the modality of a compendium of publications, addresses through four scientific articles the proposal of affordable solutions for the measurement of soil water status, with special focus on water content; it explores the limitations and challenges associated with the calibration of soil dielectric sensors; participates in the generation of new insights and proposals for a better understanding of the behavior of water in soil and its interaction with electromagnetic waves; and establishes new approaches and models that improve the prediction of crop water status from indirect and automatable measurements in soil and atmosphere. Esta tesis doctoral se presenta bajo la modalidad de compendio de publicaciones. Está formada por un total de cuatro artículos: Article I. González-Teruel, J.D., Torres-Sánchez, R., Blaya-Ros, P.J., Toledo-Moreo, A.B., Jiménez-Buendía, M., Soto-Valles, F., 2019. Design and Calibration of a Low-Cost SDI-12 Soil Moisture Sensor. Sensors, 19, 491. DOI: 10.3390/s19030491 - Article II. González-Teruel, J.D., Jones, S.B., Soto-Valles, F., Torres-Sánchez, R., Lebron, I., Friedman, S.P., Robinson, D.A., 2020. Dielectric Spectroscopy and Application of Mixing Models Describing Dielectric Dispersion in Clay Minerals and Clayey Soils. Sensors, 20, 6678. DOI: 10.3390/s20226678 Article III. González-Teruel, J.D., Jones, S.B., Robinson, D.A., Giménez-Gallego, J., Zornoza, R., Torres-Sánchez, R., 2022. Measurement of the broadband complex permittivity of soils in the frequency domain with a low-cost Vector Network Analyzer and an Open-Ended coaxial probe. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 195, 106847. DOI: 10.1016/J.COMPAG.2022.106847 Article IV. González-Teruel, J.D., Ruiz-Abellon, M.C., Blanco, V., Blaya-Ros, P.J., Domingo, R., Torres-Sánchez, R., 2022. Prediction of Water Stress Episodes in Fruit Trees Based on Soil and Weather Time Series Data. Agronomy, 12, 1422. DOI: 10.3390/agronomy12061422 Escuela Internacional de Doctorado de la Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena Programa de Doctorado en Tecnologías Industriales

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    Authors: Andersone, I;

    Promocijas darbā izstrādātā metode piedāvā alternatīvu risinājumu, kā apvienot metriskas robotu sastādītas kartes un kā rīkoties kļūdainas karšu apvienošanas gadījumā. Metode risina karšu apvienošanas problēmu gan lokālā (divu metrisku karšu apvienošana bez informācijas par to savstarpējo novietojumu), gan globālā (rezultāta pārbaude un karšu apvienošanas atgriezeniskums) līmenī.

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    Authors: Alfonso Ruiz, Francisco Javier;

    [SPA] En la empresa actual, y en un entorno globalizado como en el que nos encontramos, resulta de vital importancia tener unos procesos eficientes y eficaces, capaces de suministrar el producto o servicio en el plazo adecuado, en la cantidad adecuada, y con el mínimo coste posible. Desde hace varias décadas, la metodología Lean aporta a las empresas herramientas enfocadas a la mejora gradual y continua de su cadena de valor, haciéndolas más competitivas. Pese a esto, no resulta difícil encontrar implantaciones Lean fracasadas, aún con el esfuerzo e inversión iniciales, lo cual conlleva una gran pérdida de tiempo y dinero. Por otro lado, la Industria 4.0 se está erigiendo como la nueva revolución industrial, la de los sistemas ciber-físicos, encaminada a la digitalización e interconectividad de los sistemas productivos a través de la aplicación industrial de las tecnologías de la información. Será crítico en las empresas del futuro adaptar de forma adecuada sus procesos/servicios a esta nueva era digital. El propósito de esta tesis es, por un lado, determinar cuáles son las barreras de implantación de la filosofía Lean más habituales, y por otro, analizar las herramientas de la Industria 4.0 más utilizadas para, posteriormente, centrarse en la interacción entre ambos mundos, el de mejora continua y el digital. Se pretende hacer especial hincapié en la digitalización de los sistemas orientados hacia un Lean digital y adaptados a la realidad futura de los entornos industriales, de manera que no sólo se eviten las fricciones entre ambos enfoques, sino que se aproveche la Industria 4.0 para atenuar las históricas barreras de implementación del Lean Manufacturing, potenciando y mejorando estos sistemas. Pese a ser un tema de gran interés para las empresas, actualmente no se disponen de estudios científicos que demuestren que la digitalización de las empresas a través de la Industria 4.0 puede atenuar las barreras de implantación de sistemas Lean y mejorar, por tanto, el impacto de estos sistemas de mejora continua en los resultados de las empresas. A través de un estudio en profundidad realizado dentro de la empresa multinacional Saint- Gobain, mediante el análisis cuantitativo en 93 fábricas distribuidas en más de 10 países, se ha conseguido demostrar estadísticamente la relación positiva que las herramientas digitales tienen en la implantación Lean y, por ende, en los resultados de la empresa. Los resultados obtenidos son de gran ayuda para aquellas empresas inmersas en proyectos Lean de mejora continua, así como en otras cuyos sistemas hayan perdido relevancia con el paso del tiempo. Además, se suple en parte la falta de conocimiento en esta área, ya que como se ha señalado anteriormente apenas hay artículos científicos que demuestren esta relación positiva. Por último, pero no por eso menos importante, el haber hecho el estudio desde dentro de uno de los grupos industriales mayores a nivel mundial, otorga a esta investigación un grado de aplicabilidad elevado por su estrecha cercanía al mundo de las empresas. [ENG] In today's company, and in a globalized environment such as the one we find ourselves in, it is vitally important to have efficient and effective processes, capable of supplying the product or service in the right time, in the right quantity, and at the lowest possible cost. For several decades, the Lean methodology has provided companies with tools focused on the gradual and progressive improvement of their value chain, making them more competitive. Despite this, it is not difficult to find failed Lean implementations, even with the initial effort and investment, which leads to a great loss of time and money. On the other hand, Industry 4.0 is emerging as the new industrial revolution, the one of the cyber-physical systems, aimed at the digitalization and interconnectivity of production systems through the industrial application of information technologies. It will be critical in the companies of the future adequately adapt their processes/services to this new digital era. The purpose of this thesis is, on one hand, to determine which are the most common barriers for the implementation of the Lean philosophy, and on the other hand, to analyze the tools of Industry 4.0 most used. Finally, it will be focused on the interaction between both worlds, digital and continuous improvement, with special emphasis on the digitalization of these systems towards a digital Lean and adapted to the future reality of industrial environments, so that not only friction between both approaches is avoided, but also Industry 4.0 is used to mitigate the historical barriers to the implementation of Lean Manufacturing, enhancing and improving these systems. Despite being a topic of great interest for companies, currently there are no scientific studies showing that the digitalization of companies through Industry 4.0 can mitigate the barriers to Lean implementation, and therefore improve the impact of these systems of continuous improvement in the results of companies. Through an in-depth study carried out within the multinational company Saint-Gobain, by means of the quantitative analysis in 93 factories distributed in more than 10 countries, it has been possible to statistically demonstrate the positive relationship that digital tools have in the implementation of Lean, and therefore in the results of the company. The results obtained are of great help for those companies immersed in Lean projects of continuous improvement, as well as in others whose systems have lost relevance over time. In addition, the lack of knowledge in this area is partly solved, since as we said there are hardly any scientific articles that demonstrate this positive relationship. Last, but not least, having made the study from within one of the largest industrial groups worldwide, gives this research a high degree of applicability due to its close proximity to the business world. Escuela Internacional de Doctorado de la Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena Programa de Doctorado en Ciencias Económicas, Empresariales y Jurídicas

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    Authors: Porteous, Cian;

    Botnets pose a significant and growing risk to modern networks. Detection of botnets remains an important area of open research in order to prevent the proliferation of botnets and to mitigate the damage that can be caused by botnets that have already been established. Botnet detection can be broadly categorised into two main categories: signature-based detection and anomaly-based detection. This paper sets out to measure the accuracy, false-positive rate, and false-negative rate of four algorithms that are available in Weka for anomaly-based detection of a dataset of HTTP and IRC botnet data. The algorithms that were selected to detect botnets in the Weka environment are J48, naïve Bayes, random forest, and UltraBoost. The dataset was generated using a realistic network environment by The University of New South Wales, Canberra. The findings showed that botnet behaviours from the selected dataset could be detected by Weka with a high degree of accuracy and low false-positive rate. With all features included, the random forest algorithm was found to achieve the highest accuracy with 96.70%, and the algorithm that attained the lowest false-positive rates was also random forest with 0.008. With a reduced feature set of IP addresses and ports, the random forest algorithm attained the highest accuracy and precision and lowest false-positive rate. With only information regarding packets per second being sent and received, J48 was this time the most accurate with its predictions and attained the highest precision.

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    Authors: Martínez Pérez, José Ángel;

    [SPA] La Cuenca del Río Segura, localizada en el Sureste de España, es un área semiárida donde las necesidades hídricas del sector agrícola superan el 80 % del uso total del agua disponible. En esta cuenca considerada la “huerta de Europa”, las sequías son recurrentes por ello la gestión sostenible del uso del agua representa un reto a alcanzar. En este sentido, el aumento de fiabilidad en la estimación de la evapotranspiración real (ETreal) se vería traducido en un mayor conocimiento de la necesidad hídrica real del cultivo, y por consiguiente en un uso más racional del agua, siendo por tanto el principal objetivo de la presente Tesis. La información necesaria para alcanzar este objetivo, ha sido obtenida en su mayor parte desde satélite; valiosa fuente de información que permite derivar componentes del balance hídrico. Desde observaciones multiescala se pueden identificar las zonas regadas con problemas de estrés hídrico, sus necesidades de riego, y realizar por tanto recomendaciones acertadas de volúmenes de riego. En la presente Tesis, se han propuesto y desarrollado metodologías en base a imágenes satélites que han sido validadas con datos al suelo desde torres de medida de flujo (mediante la técnica Eddy Covariance), permitiendo una estimación espacio-temporal de la ETreal a distintas escalas temporales y espaciales. Primeramente se abordó un análisis a escala de parcela o distrito de riego, centrándose el área de estudio en el Campo de Cartagena. El método aplicado consistió en una aproximación gráfica basado en la ecuación de Priestley-Taylor (PT), donde condiciones no limitantes del agua y de suelo seco fueron definidas por la temperatura superficial (LST) y el índice de vegetación (VI) Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), ambos obtenidos mediante teledetección. Utilizando mediciones de ETreal e imágenes Landsat 5-TM en un área regada, se realizó un análisis de sensibilidad de las distribuciones espaciales de ETreal para el período 2009-11 con respecto a: (i) la forma (trapezoidal o rectangular) del espacio LST versus VI; y (ii) el valor del coeficiente PT (α). Los resultados de la validación fueron satisfactorios. Ambas formas proporcionaron resultados similares en la estimación de ETreal, con un error cuadrático medio (RMSE) ~30 W/m2 y una diferencia relativa ~10 % con respecto a las observaciones basadas en las torres de medida. El mejor ajuste con datos medidos fue para α cercano a 1, un valor algo diferente del valor comúnmente utilizado de 1.27, lo que indica que podría producirse un error sustancial al usar este último valor. En segundo lugar, se afronta un análisis a escala de cuenca hidrográfica más apropiado en estudios y modelos hidrológicos orientados a planificación de recursos hídricos, y usos agrícolas, pues éstos exigen el conocimiento de largas series temporales de ETreal empleando escenarios dinámicos relacionados con el uso del suelo o el cambio climático. Esta información a escala mensual y de cuenca hidrográfica permite la mejora de series temporales hidrológicas, uno de los objetivos buscados por la política del agua de la Unión Europea. En este sentido, a nivel europeo se pretende incentivar la contabilidad del agua a escala de cuenca, como herramienta para determinar ahorros potenciales de agua y homogeneizar resultados para ser comparados entre territorios y periodos. Debido a ello, con el propósito de integrar ETreal en un sistema de contabilidad hídrica, se empleó un método basado en un ajuste de regresión no lineal, usando para ello el IV Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) provisto por el sensor MODIS a bordo de la plataforma TERRA, datos de temperatura del aire para la estimación de la ETo, y observaciones de ETreal, proporcionando estimaciones mensuales y a escala de cuenca. Los resultados fueron validados con datos al suelo desde torres de medida de flujos, mostrando un error inferior a un 15 % y un RMSE inferior a 0.5 mm/d (mensual). Con esta información, se completaron balances hídricos en el marco de la implantación del sistema SEEA-Water de Naciones Unidas para toda la Demarcación del Río Segura, diseñándose una herramienta que combina la información hidrometeorológica necesaria desde distintas fuentes. De este modo, constituye una metodología innovadora para la incorporación de datos hidrometeorológicos agregando diferentes redes de medición. A modo de aplicación, en esta Tesis se detallan únicamente los resultados referentes a en la cuenca alta del Río Segura, donde se localizan y generan las reservas más importantes de la cuenca. y validación para diferentes condiciones de cobertura vegetal. Se destaca la dificultad en la aplicación de la metodología SEEA-Water de las cuentas del agua a escala de demarcación hidrográfica, dada la falta de datos y la integración de diferentes fuentes de información y escalas espacio-temporales de trabajo. Sin embargo, quedan por resolver incertidumbres relacionadas con otras variables así como la integración de diferentes fuentes de información y escalas espacio-temporales de trabajo. En este sentido se debe hacer un esfuerzo, que permita llegar a un equilibrio entre lo establecido en la Directiva Marco de Aguas y la disponibilidad real de la información requerida. [ENG] The Segura River Basin, located in the Southeast of Spain, is a semi-arid area where water need of agricultural sector exceed 80 % of the total use of available water. In this basin, which is considered the "orchard of Europe", droughts are frequent, so the sustainable management of water use represents a challenge to be achieved. In this sense, the increase of reliability in the estimation of the actual evapotranspiration (ETact), would be reflected in a better knowledge of the crop water requirements, and consequently in a more rational use of agricultural water resources, which is one of the main objectives of this Thesis. The necessary information to achieve this objective have been obtained mostly from satellite, which is known to be a valuable source of information for retrieving the components of land energy and water balance. From multiscale observations, it can be identified irrigated areas with water stress problems, their irrigation needs, and therefore, it could provide accurate recommendations for irrigation scheduling. In this Thesis, methodologies have been proposed and developed based on satellite images, which have been validated from ground truth using flux towers and the Eddy-Covariance technique, allowing estimation of ETact at different temporal and spatial scales. Firstly, an analysis was carried out at the scale of the irrigation plot or district. The applied method consisted of a graphical approximation based on the Priestley-Taylor (PT) equation, where non-limiting conditions of water and dry soil were defined by the surface temperature (LST) and a vegetation index (VI) Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), both obtained by remote sensing. Using ET measurements from flux towers, and Landsat 5-TM images in a irrigated area, a sensitivity analysis of ETact spatial distributions was performed for the period 2009-11 with respect to: (i) the form (trapezoidal or rectangular) of the LST-VI space; and (ii) the value of the PT coefficient (α). The results from ground truth validation were satisfactory, both shapes providing similar performances in estimating ETact, with root mean square error (RMSE) ~30 W/m2 and relative difference ~10 % with respect to tower-based measurements. Importantly, the best fit with ground data was found for α close to 1, a somewhat different value from the commonly used value of 1.27, indicating that substantial error might arise when using the latter value. Secondly, an analysis at the hydrographic basin scale is, more appropriate in hydrological and agricultural studies and models, but requires the knowledge of long time series of ETact using dynamic scenarios related to land use or climate change. This information at a monthly scale and in a watershed allows for the improvement of hydrological time series, the purpose of the European Union's water policy. In this sense, at European level the water accounting is pretended to encourage, as a tool to determine potential water savings and homogenize results to be compared between territories and periods. Therefore, with the purpose of integrating ETact in a water accounting system, a method based on a nonlinear regression adjustment was used, which uses the IV Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) provided by the MODIS sensor on board the platform TERRA, air temperature data for the estimation of ETo, and observations of ETact, provided monthly and basin scale estimates. The results were validated with soil data from flow measurement towers, showing an error of less than 15 % and an RMSE of less than 0.5 mm/d (monthly). With this information, water balances were filled out within the framework of the implementation of the United Nations SEE-Water system, for the entire Segura River Demarcation, designing a tool that combines different hydrometeorological information necessary for the completion of water balances. In this way, it constitutes an innovative methodology for the incorporation of hydrometeorological data by the integration of different measurement networks. However, this thesis only details the results respect to the upper basin of the Segura River, where the most important stocks of the basin are located and generated. Finally, it is emphasized that obtaining reliable estimates of ETact for different vegetal coverage conditions by means of large-scale satellite data is a difficult objective to achieve given the multitude of variables involved in this process. To which must be added the scarcity of ground true data for its contrast under different environmental conditions. The difficulty in the implementation of SEEA-Water methodology of water accounting at basin scale, is justified by the unavailability of all data at the spatio-temporal scale Abstract required. However although there are still unresolved uncertainties related to other variables and the integration of different sources of information and spatio-temporal scales of work. Therefore, an effort must be made in this sense, which allows achieving a balance between what is established in the Water Framework Directive and the actual availability of the required information. Escuela Internacional de Doctorado de la Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena Programa Doctorado en Técnicas Avanzadas en Investigación y Desarrollo Agrario y Alimentario

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    Authors: Papoutsa, Christiana;

    Maintaining water quality in inland and coastal water bodies in good condition is of the highest priority tasks in the implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive, and a key component in water resources management. This is of great importance for Cyprus, too, since a large number of reservoir water bodies have been developed to address drought, thus calling for systematic monitoring of water quality. Conventional methods for assessing water quality rely on sampling campaigns which are costly and time consuming. Aiming to fill the gap of the conventional field methods this PhD thesis is focused on providing novel methods for monitoring large surface Case-2 (inland and coastal) water bodies in the Mediterranean region using satellite images which can provide data on a systematic basis and offer synoptic coverage. To reach this goal, ground truth data measurements (spectroradiometric, turbidity and Secchi Disk Depth) were conducted simultaneously to satellite overpasses. Afterwards, statistical analysis and modelling techniques were employed to analyse and correlate the available data. The first goal is to identify a suitable spectral region from which turbidity can be retrieved based on the field spectroradiometric measurements obtained during an extensive 3-years field campaign over Asprokremmos Reservoir, the main study area. Secondly, the aim is to provide the suitable bands for monitoring turbidity using different satellite sensors such as Landsat, Envisat MERIS and Chris-Proba. To test the derived algorithm eight available Landsat-5 TM and Landsat-7 ETM+ satellite images which were acquired at the same time as the field campaigns were processed; and the correlation between the satellite-derived data to the ground-based measurements was found statistically significant. The third objective is to develop an algorithm which can be used for estimating the Trophic State Index over large surface Case-2 water bodies in the Mediterranean region on a systematic basis using remotely sensed data. All the data acquired during the field campaigns over different water bodies inland and coastal were xv processed in order to examine and retrieve the ‘best-fit’ algorithm. This algorithm is of great importance since it can be applied for a wide range of water bodies with different trophic state values based on the band ratio values of the available Landsat satellite data. As a fourth objective the diffuse attenuation coefficient for Asprokremmos Reservoir was calculated and used in order to study its optical properties. Diffuse attenuation coefficient over the Reservoir was calculated for different bandwidths. The objective was to identify the optimal bandwidth which shows the best correlation with the TSI and SDD readings. For the calculation of the Diffuse Attenuation Coefficient values, field spectroradiometric data collected at different water depths below the water surface during the field campaigns in Asprokremmos were used. Finally, this thesis provides a reference spectral library covering a wide range of Case-2 water bodies including oligotrophic and eutrophic inland water bodies, a shallow salt-lake and several coastal areas. This can assist the characterization of any water body based on its spectral characteristics being retrieved from the available satellite data. All the above applications can become a very valuable tool for water quality monitoring of large reservoirs in Cyprus. This tool can be used on a systematic basis by the stakeholders, such as the Cyprus Water Development Department in the near future. All the field data can be further used to develop new algorithms based on the spectral resolution of any other satellite providing the opportunity to select satellites with different temporal and spatial resolution depending on the purpose of the application and the availability of satellite images. Athanasios Loukas, Phaedon C. Kyriakidis, Completed

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    Authors: Zabala García, José Ángel;

    [SPA] Esta tesis doctoral se presenta bajo la modalidad de compendio de publicaciones. La contribución de la agricultura al bienestar humano va más allá de la mera producción de alimentos y materias primas. También abarca la provisión de bienes y servicios de no mercado que pueden tener impacto, positivo o negativo, en el bienestar humano. Así, la agricultura es la principal actividad desarrollada al amparo de los agroecosistemas, donde la presión antrópica de las prácticas agrícolas afecta a su funcionamiento y a los niveles de provisión de servicios y contraservicios ecosistémicos. La valoración económica de estos servicios y contraservicios, y en consecuencia de las prácticas agrícolas que los fomentan, permite orientar las decisiones de política agrícola de acuerdo a la contribución de los agroecosistemas al bienestar humano. En este contexto, la presente tesis doctoral tiene como objetivo central la valoración económica de la demanda social de servicios y contraservicios de los agroecosistemas, así como de las prácticas agrícolas que los promueven. Para ello, y utilizando experimentos de elección como metodología principal, se formula un enfoque integral para la valoración de agroecosistemas en una región semiárida del Mediterráneo, la Región de Murcia (sudeste de España). La validación de este enfoque es llevada a cabo por parte de los agentes implicados en su gestión y permite seleccionar los servicios y contraservicios más importantes, cuya demanda social y valor de no mercado son posteriormente estimados. Más allá de las cifras concretas, los resultados ofrecen una visión amplia sobre el enfoque necesario en las políticas agrícolas para que logren aumentar el bienestar de la sociedad. Así, las acciones de política agrícola deberían centrarse en aumentar la provisión de alimentos, promover la biodiversidad de los agroecosistemas, reducir la temperatura local, generar oportunidades para el ocio y recreo en los paisajes agrícolas, mientras se busca regular el suministro de agua para riego y mitigar la contaminación por nutrientes agrícolas. En relación a este último aspecto, en esta tesis también se aborda la evaluación de la demanda social de medidas agrícolas con el fin de reducir la contaminación por nitratos de la agricultura. Todas las medidas propuestas, pese a la heterogeneidad detectada en su demanda, contaron con apoyo social, lo que ha de brindar orientación a los gestores públicos para el establecimiento de estrategias para la mitigación de la contaminación agrícola por nitratos que sean socialmente respaldadas. Así se espera que esta tesis proporcione una mejor comprensión de los vínculos entre agricultura y bienestar humano, orientando la formulación de políticas mejor informadas y eficaces en aras de su contribución al bienestar social. [ENG] This doctoral dissertation has been presented in the form of thesis by publication. The contribution of agriculture to human wellbeing goes beyond food production. It also encompasses the provision of non-commodity goods and services that may impact human wellbeing both positively and negatively. Agriculture is the main activity developed within agroecosystems, where human pressures, mainly through agricultural practices, affect their innate functioning. This leads to the provision of agroecosystem services and disservices. Economic valuation of agroecosystem services and disservices, and agricultural practices in accordance, allow us to guide policy decisions in line with the contribution of agroecosystems to human wellbeing. In such a context, this thesis aims to economically evaluate the integrated social demand of agroecosystem services and disservices, and the agricultural practices that promotes them, by adapting a comprehensive approach for agroecosystem valuation in a semiarid Mediterranean region – the Region of Murcia (SE Spain). Discrete choice experiment was the central methodology used. The non-market value of agroecosystem services and disservices, and consequently, of agricultural practices impacting on them, was disentangled aiming to reflect the contribution of agroecosystems to human wellbeing in monetary terms. The validation of a comprehensive approach for agroecosystem valuation by stakeholders settled the agroecosystem services and disservices whose social demand and non-market value was then estimated. Regardless of the specific economic values, the non-market results provide deep insight into the expected focus of agricultural policies for increasing their impact on human wellbeing. Agricultural measures should therefore be centred around increasing food provision, promoting agroecosystem biodiversity, reducing the local temperature, generating opportunities for recreation in agricultural landscapes, whilst seeking to regulate water supply for irrigation and mitigate agricultural nutrient pollution. In accordance with the latter, the social demand for agricultural measures aiming to reduce nitrate pollution from agriculture was addressed. Despite the great preference heterogeneity, social support was revealed to the measures, providing guidance for policy makers in the establishment of socially supported strategies for agricultural nitrate pollution mitigation. To conclude, this thesis expects to provide better insight into the links between agriculture and human wellbeing, in the hopes that better- informed policy actions will, therefore, be developed that aim to boost human wellbeing. Esta tesis doctoral se presenta bajo la modalidad de compendio de publicaciones. Está formada por un total de tres artículos: Article 1.-: Zabala, J.A., Martínez-Paz, J.M., Alcon, F., 2021. A comprehensive approach for agroecosystem services and disservices valuation. Science of The Total Environment 768, 144859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.144859. Q1. IF 7.963. Article 2.-: Zabala, J.A, Martínez-Paz, J.M., Alcon, F., 2021. Integrated valuation of semiarid Mediterranean agroecosystem services and disservices. Ecological Economics 184, 107008. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2021.107008. Q1. IF 5.389 Article 3.-: Alcon, F., Zabala, J.A., Martínez-Paz, J.M., 2022. Assessment of social demand heterogeneity to inform agricultural diffuse pollution mitigation policies. Ecological Economics 191, 107216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2021.107216. Q1. IF 5.389. Escuela Internacional de Doctorado de la Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena Programa Doctorado en Ciencias Económicas, Empresariales y Jurídicas

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    Authors: Moreno Cornejo, Jennifer;

    [SPA] La producción agrícola en la Región de Murcia ocupa un lugar muy importante en la economía regional y especialmente en la zona del Campo de Cartagena. Esta intensísima agricultura conlleva la generación de un problema de contaminación difusa debido a un excesivo uso de fertilizantes químicos. Además, esta actividad también genera una gran cantidad de residuos post-cosecha resultantes de los ciclos productivos, especialmente de cultivos bajo invernadero. En esta tesis se propone la valorización de los restos de cosecha como enmienda orgánica del suelo para intentar mejorar sus propiedades y reducir el uso de fertilizantes químicos. Los residuos de cosecha poseen un gran potencial como enmienda en suelos dedicados a producción agrícola ya que representan una fuente de materia orgánica y de nutrientes, lo que justifica el estudio de sus efectos en el suelo una vez incorporados. Por ello se ha evaluado, bajo condiciones controladas, la influencia a medio plazo de diferentes dosis de residuos de pimiento (muy comunes en el Campo de Cartagena) sobre la dinámica del carbono y del nitrógeno. Los resultados resaltan la importancia de la dosis cuando se aplican restos vegetales, ya que la adición de los mismos a dosis bajas (2 g kg-1) causó una inmovilización de N mientras que a dosis más altas (3 and 5 g kg-1) se produjo una mineralización de N neta de 13.7 y 56.7 mg kg-1. También se ha estudiado el efecto de la aplicación de residuos frescos de pimiento sobre un cultivo de brócoli, en comparación con el uso exclusivo de fertilizantes químicos. Los objetivos fueron evaluar el efecto de dichos residuos sobre las propiedades físico-químicas y bioquímicas del suelo relacionadas con el ciclo del carbono y fertilidad del suelo, así como sobre la calidad, nutrientes y producción en un cultivo de brócoli. Los resultados mostraron que la combinación de altas tasas de aplicación de restos vegetales con una mínima fertilización química mejora las propiedades edáficas incrementando entre otros la biomasa microbiana y algunas actividades enzimáticas si se compara con el control. Además, existen efectos positivos sobre la calidad del brócoli sin que exista un impacto negativo sobre su producción. Finalmente se ha estudiado el turnover de carbono mediado por las poblaciones microbianas utilizando técnicas de marcaje isotópico (13C) para conocer la cantidad de carbono que se incorpora a las diferentes fracciones del suelo, considerando la influencia de tres restos vegetales y dos formas de manejo, orgánica y convencional. Los resultados indicaron que el 13C, incorporado como glucosa fue asimilado en mayor medida por la biomasa microbiana en los suelos enmendados con restos vegetales. Sin embargo, la adición de restos también causó una mayor mineralización del 13C orgánico comparado con los controles, por lo que su incorporación en el suelo, tanto en la fracción lábil como recalcitrante, fue menor en dichos suelos enmendados con restos vegetales. [ENG] The agricultural production in the Murcia Region occupies a very important place in the regional economy and especially in the agricultural land of Campo de Cartagena. The intensive agricultural production has resulted in a diffuse pollution problem due to an excessive use of chemical fertilizers and a large amount generation of post-harvest crop residues resulting after the growing season, especially from greenhouse crops. In this thesis the recycling of crop residues applied as soil organic amendment is proposed to improve soil quality and reduce the use of chemical fertilizer. The crop residues have a great potential as organic amendment in agricultural lands representing a source of both organic matter and nutrients; however it is necessary to study their effect when they are applied in soil. We have evaluated, under laboratory conditions, the medium-term influence of pepper residues (very common in Campo de Cartagena) applied at different rates on carbon and nitrogen dynamics in an agricultural soil. The results highlight the importance of dose when applying crop residues. The addition of pepper residues at low doses (2 g kg-1) produce a net N immobilization in soil, while higher doses (3 and 5 g kg-1) show a net N mineralization of 13.7 and 56.7 mg kg-1. Was also studied the effect of pepper crop residues application on broccoli production compared with the exclusive use of chemical fertilizers. We focused on the effect of crop residues on soil physico-chemical and biochemical properties related to the carbon cycle, soil fertility and broccoli nutrient, yield and quality. The results showed that large application rates of crop residues with a minimum chemical fertilization improved chemical and biochemical soil properties increasing, among others, microbial biomass and some enzymatic activities compared with control. Likewise, positive effects on broccoli quality were found with no negative impact on broccoli yield. Finally, the carbon turnover mediated by soil microbial populations was assessed using isotopic labeling techniques to know the amount of labeled C (13C) incorporated into different organic pools considering the influence of three plant materials and under two management systems. Results indicated that the 13C-glucose was much more assimilated into microbial biomass C in plants-amended samples. However, plants addition also caused a positive priming effect and enhanced mineralization of organic 13C, thus C from glucose was incorporated in a lower proportion into soil recalcitrant and labile carbon in plants-amended soils. Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena

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