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The current progress of remote sensing systems, based on airborne and spaceborne platforms and involving active and passive sensors, provides an unprecedented wealth of information about the Earth surface for environmental monitoring, sustainable resource management, disaster prevention, emergency response, and defense. In this framework, mathematical models for image processing and analysis play fundamental roles. Effectively exploiting the potential conveyed by the availability of remote sensing data requires automatic or semi-automatic techniques capable of suitably characterizing and extracting thematic information of interest while minimizing the need for user intervention. The current development of mathematical models and methods for image processing and computer vision allows multiple remote sensing information extraction problems to be addressed successfully, accurately, and efficiently. In this introductory chapter, first, general characteristics of sensors and systems for Earth observation are summarized to define the basic terminology that will be used consistently throughout the book. Remote sensing image acquisition through passive and active sensors on-board spaceborne and airborne platforms is recalled together with the basic concepts of spatial, spectral, temporal, and radiometric resolution. Then, an overview of the main families of mathematical models and methods within the scientific field of two-dimensional remote sensing image processing is presented. The overall structure and organization of the book are also described. International audience

The Green Revolution and the introduction of chemical fertilizers, synthetic pesticides and high yield crops had enabled to increase food production in the mid and late 20th. The benefits of this agricultural intensification have however reached their limits since yields are no longer increasing for many crops, negative externalities on the environment and human health are now recognized and economic inequality between farmers have increased. Agroecology has been proposed to secure food supply with fewer or lower negative environmental and social impacts than intensive agriculture. Agroecology principles are based on the recognition that biodiversity in agroecosystems can provide more than only food, fibre and timber. Hence, biodiversity and its associated functions, such as pollination, pest control, and mechanisms that maintain or improve soil fertility, may improve production efficiency and sustainability of agroecosystems. Although appealing, promoting ecological-based agricultural production is not straightforward since agroecosystems are socio-ecosystems with complex interactions between the ecological and social systems that act at different spatial and temporal scales. To be operational, agroecology thus requires understanding the relationships between biodiversity, functions and management, as well as to take into account the links between agriculture, ecology and the society. Here we review current knowledge on (i) the effect of landscape context on biodiversity and ecosystem functions and (ii) trophic and non-trophic interactions in ecological networks in agroecosystems. In particular, many insights have been made these two previous decades on (i) the interacting effects of management and landscape characteristics on biodiversity, (ii) the crucial role of plant diversity in delivering multiple services and (iii) the variety of ecological belowground mechanisms determining soil fertility in interaction with aboveground processes. However, we also pinpointed the absence of consensus on the effects of landscape heterogeneity on biodiversity and the need for a better mechanistic understanding of the effects of landscape and agricultural variables on farmland food webs and related services. We end by proposing new research avenues to fill knowledge gaps and implement agroecological principles within operational management strategies. [Departement_IRSTEA]Territoires [ADD1_IRSTEA]Dynamique et fonctionnement des écosystèmesChapter 1 International audience

Climate change is predicted to increase the occurrence of extreme droughts, which are associated with elevated mortality rates in tropical trees. Drought-induced mortality is thought to occur by two main mechanisms: hydraulic failure or carbon starvation . This chapter focuses on the strategies that plants use to survive these two drought-induced mortality mechanisms and how these mechanisms are distributed among the immense diversity of tropical tree species. The traits that tropical trees may use to survive drought include (1) xylem that is resistant to drought-induced cavitation , (2) high sapwood capacitance that protects xylem from critically low water potentials , (3) drought deciduousness, (4) photosynthetic stems that have the potential to assimilate carbon at greater water-use efficiency than leaves, (5) deep roots, (6) regulation of gas exchange to reduce leaf water loss or to maintain photosynthesis at low leaf water potential and (7) when all else fails, low cuticular conductance from exposed tissues during extended drought. To date, most research has focused on deciduousness, resistant xylem, soil water, gas exchange behavior and sapwood capacitance, whereas little is known about the role of photosynthetic stems or cuticular conductance during extreme extended drought, making these processes a high priority for a complete understanding of tropical tree physiology during drought.

Nowadays a number of enabling technologies are coming together. Above all is the progressive reduction of the cost and scale of computing devices equipped with wireless communication, sensing and actuating capabilities. Sensing capabilities include cameras, microphones, GPS receivers and many different scalar sensors. Open-sourced, general-purpose and easily programmable operating systems are spreading as a result of market forces. These factors create a multitude of devices and smart objects interconnected on a global scale and nowadays called the Internet of Things (IoT). This one emerges by the way as a network of physical objects, devices, vehicles, buildings and other items embedded with electronics, software, sensors, actuators and network connectivity, to enable the collect and the exchange of data. The intrinsic heterogeneity of IoT makes its programming, deployment and management difficult and even crippling. The Web with its almost universal feature, appears as a promising candidate to provide to IoT a platform able to abstract and hide its fundamental heterogeneity. The shift from IoT to the Web of Things (WoT) has mainly to simplify the management of IoT while preserving its full range of capabilities and possibilities. Each smart object in WoT can interact with users and with other smart objects using a RESTfull API either embedded in the smart object itself or in a gateway. It can be accessible through a dedicated URL via a standard web protocol such as HTTP, REST, . . . using the browser as a native access point. This convergence to the web can eventually bring some security issues mainly related to the huge number of possible connected smart objects, which reduces the efficiency or may even invalidate the traditional control mechanisms (identity management, authentication, access control . . . ). We argue thus the need of a deeper investigation of the security requirements of WoT together with an analysis of the limitations of the existing security architectures. International audience

Chapitre 3; The supply of biomass feedstock to biorefineries plays a key role in the overall environmental performance of biobased products. This chapter reviews the main challenges associated with the application of life-cycle assessment to biomass supply chains from agricultural residues, arable crops, or perennial lignocellulosic grasses and addresses them through state-of-the-art approaches involving spatially explicit feedstock modeling. These challenges include the variability in crop yields and field emissions, the effects of land-use changes (whether direct or indirect) and the handling of coproducts, especially for first-generation biofuels. Examples from recent research projects at the regional scale in France illustrate how the proposed modeling can tackle these issues and be used for decision-making purposes when designing feedstock production systems and supply chains. Avenues for progress include an optimal selection or mixture of feedstocks, the use of fertilizer recommendation systems for arable crops, and targeting those land parcels that have the lowest GHG emissions and best potential to store soil carbon overall.

A large variety of measurement methods for the characterization of airborne nanoparticles in indoor or outdoor air exist. The choice of an appropriate method depends strongly on the questions to be tackled. If the aerosol is to be characterized only for a single location, one may use stationary equipment that is rather bulky but provides the most details and is most accurate. Spatially resolved measurements can only be conducted with portable or personal measurement equipment which provide a limited dataset with lower accuracy. Furthermore, the metrics to be measured (e.g., number, surface area of mass concentration, chemical composition, etc.) determine the choice of measurement methods as no single method can do it all. Another determining factor is the time resolution of the instruments. While direct-reading monitors deliver the information with high time resolution (often 1 s) and hence allow for linking the measured concentration to certain activities, samplers collect the particles for subsequent analyses and therefore provide an average over the sampling time. Consequently, the choice of a measurement instrument for the characterization of airborne nanoparticles remains a compromise. In many practical applications, the combination of different techniques may be required. International audience

PART III, Chapter 9; For centuries, Paris and its Region were hot-spots of innovative agriculture, chiefly in market-gardening production. In the past 5 years, as part of the global movement reconnecting consumers with food production, innovative commercial forms of urban agriculture have been emerging inside the city Through systematic surveys, regular meetings and direct involvement in the experimental design of new cropping systems on rooftops, we have studied the growing number of UA projects in Paris and its region. Three types of project can be distinguished regarding their relationship to cropping support: on-the-ground farms, “low-tech off-soil” systems with open-air cropping systems on rooftops, and “high-tech” greenhouse systems. Project leaders are from widely diverse backgrounds, generally have no agronomic skills, have a high level of academic education, and are very much in tune with the city way of life. Our first estimations may be used to measure the possible contribution of these forms of Urban Agriculture to the city’s food supply – a contribution that is still quantitatively small. Parisian and regional authorities are now supporting this emergence in various ways. Yet these projects still face some challenges, including difficulties in securing access to open spaces or buildings, and the current suspicion about the safety of agricultural products grown inside reputedly polluted urban region.

In the era of Industry 4.0, digital manufacturing is evolving into smart manufacturing. This evolution impacts companies in three main areas: organization, people, and technologies. This chapter analyzes the Internet of Things (IoT) and Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS)—key technologies transforming the physical world into a digitalized physical world. IoT and CPS provide factories with sensing capabilities, perform data and context capture and allow them to act/react to optimize the value chain. We survey the recent state-of-the-art development of the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT)—also known as IoT and CPS in the context of Industry 4.0, from a protocol, architecture, and standard point-of-view. We also explore key challenges and future research directions for extensive industrial adoption of these technologies. International audience